标题： 评估公共部门工资差距：法国公共部门与私营部门工资的比较 显示英文标题

标题： Evaluating the Public Pay Gap: A Comparison of Public and Private Sector Wages in France

摘要： 本文解决了公共-私营工资文献中的经验谜题：为什么使用相似数据的研究对工资溢价和惩罚得出矛盾的结论。 利用丰富的法国行政面板数据（2012-2019），本研究有两个主要贡献：首先，它提出了一组新的、直观但此前未记录的关于工资动态、行业流动性和行业间性别差异的典型事实。 结果表明，适度的时薪差距掩盖了终身收入和就业稳定性的显著差异。 特别是女性在公共部门获得显著的终身收入优势，这得益于更高的留存率、更高报酬的兼职工作以及与私营部门相比更公平的年度工时，而在私营部门，性别差距仍然更大，尤其是对于受过高等教育的人。 相反，受过高等教育的男性在公共就业中由于僵化的工资结构而面临终身惩罚。 通过使用期望最大化算法灵活地对行业转换、就业进出以及收入异质性进行建模，本研究显示，溢价和惩罚系统地依赖于性别、教育和劳动力市场经验。 分析表明，工资动态中仍存在显著的未观测异质性。 这些发现通过提供关于行业差异、按性别划分的转换、兼职工作和工资的全面描述性说明，统一了现有的叙述。 显示英文摘要

摘要： This paper resolves the empirical puzzle in the public-private wage literature: why studies using similar data reach contradictory conclusions about wage premiums and penalties. Utilizing rich French administrative panel data (2012-2019), this study has two main contributions: first, it presents a set of new, intuitive yet previously undocumented stylized facts about wage dynamics, sectoral mobility, and gender differences across sectors. The results reveal that the modest hourly wage gaps conceal substantial disparities in lifetime earnings and employment stability. Women, in particular, gain a significant lifetime earnings advantage in the public sector, driven by higher retention, better-compensated part-time work, and more equitable annual hours compared to the private sector, where gender gaps remain larger, especially for those with higher education. In contrast, highly educated men experience a lifetime penalty in public employment due to rigid wage structures. By flexibly modeling sectoral transitions, transitions into and out of employment, and earnings heterogeneity using an Expectation-Maximization algorithm, this study shows that both premiums and penalties depend systematically on gender, education, and labor market experience. The analysis reveals that significant unobserved heterogeneity remains in wage dynamics. These findings unify prevailing narratives by providing a comprehensive, descriptive account of sectoral differences in transitions, part-time work and wages by gender.